Dielectric and Ferroelectric Properties of Solid Materials: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Characterization, and Technological Applications

Abstract

in modern electronic, energy storage, and sensing technologies. Their electrical behavior originates from polarization mechanisms activated under external electric fields, including electronic, ionic, dipolar, and space-charge contributions. These mechanisms govern fundamental dielectric parameters such as permittivity, dielectric loss, and complex impedance, which vary significantly with frequency, temperature, and microstructural features. Ferroelectric materials, as a specialized subset of dielectrics, exhibit spontaneous and reversible polarization below a characteristic Curie temperature, accompanied by domain switching and nonlinear hysteresis behavior. The structure–property relationship, particularly in perovskite-type oxides and lead-free ceramic systems, plays a decisive role in tailoring dielectric constant, energy density, and electromechanical coupling. Advanced characterization techniques such as dielectric spectroscopy, impedance analysis, X-ray diffraction, and polarization–electric field measurements enable systematic evaluation of material performance. This review synthesizes the fundamental mechanisms underlying dielectric and ferroelectric phenomena, discusses key parameters influencing functional behavior, and highlights recent developments in materials engineering aimed at enhancing performance for capacitors, non-volatile memories, sensors, actuators, and energy harvesting systems. The comprehensive analysis provides a consolidated framework for understanding and optimizing solid-state dielectric and ferroelectric materials for emerging technological applications.