Green Chemistry Strategies for the Sustainable Synthesis and Applications of Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review
Keywords:
Green chemistry, Nanoparticle synthesis, Plant-mediated synthesis, Sustainable nanotechnology, Environmental applicationsAbstract
The rapid advancement of nanotechnology has significantly expanded the application potential of nanoparticles across biomedical, environmental, and industrial domains; however, conventional synthesis methods remain constrained by high energy demands, toxic reagents, and environmental hazards. In response, green chemistry strategies have emerged as sustainable alternatives, emphasizing the use of renewable resources, eco-friendly solvents, and energy-efficient processes. This review comprehensively examines green synthesis approaches for nanoparticles, with particular focus on plant-mediated, microbial, and biomolecule-assisted methods. Plant extracts rich in phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolics, and terpenoids act as natural reducing and stabilizing agents, enabling the facile synthesis of metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles under mild conditions. Microbial systems, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, offer controlled synthesis through enzymatic pathways, while biomolecules provide enhanced stability and functionalization. The mechanistic aspects of nanoparticle formation, including reduction, nucleation, growth, and stabilization, are critically discussed along with key influencing parameters such as pH, temperature, and precursor concentration. Furthermore, the review highlights diverse applications of green-synthesized nanoparticles in antimicrobial therapy, drug delivery, environmental remediation, catalysis, and agriculture. Despite notable advantages such as biocompatibility and reduced toxicity, challenges related to scalability, reproducibility, and mechanistic understanding persist. Future research directions are proposed to address these limitations and advance sustainable nanotechnology.
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