A Review of Respiratory Adaptations in Aquatic and Terrestrial Chordates

Abstract

Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) using microbial and phyto-extracts has emerged as a sustainable and biocompatible approach for developing advanced nanomaterials with significant biomedical potential. Conventional physicochemical synthesis methods often involve toxic chemicals, high energy consumption, and complex procedures that limit their clinical applicability and environmental safety. In contrast, biological synthesis utilizes microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae, as well as plant-derived phytochemicals, to reduce metal ions into stable nanoparticles under mild and eco-friendly conditions. Microbial-mediated synthesis relies on enzymatic reduction and metabolic pathways that enable controlled nanoparticle nucleation and growth, while phyto-extract mediated synthesis exploits bioactive compounds like flavonoids, phenolics, and terpenoids as natural reducing and capping agents. These green-synthesized nanoparticles exhibit enhanced surface functionalization, improved colloidal stability, and reduced cytotoxicity, making them highly suitable for biomedical applications. Recent studies demonstrate their effectiveness in antimicrobial therapy, anticancer treatment, wound healing, drug delivery, biosensing, and diagnostic imaging. Additionally, the inherent bioactivity of plant and microbial biomolecules further enhances therapeutic efficacy and targeted cellular interactions. Despite challenges related to standardization, large-scale production, and comprehensive toxicity evaluation, green synthesis remains a promising and sustainable strategy for next-generation nanomedicine. This review comprehensively discusses synthesis mechanisms, influencing parameters, characterization approaches, and diverse biomedical applications of microbially and phyto-derived metal nanoparticles.